A perfect (ideal) crystal is a perfectly ordered arrangement of atoms at the points of infinite space lattice. Any departure from this idealized arrangement makes the crystal imperfect. A perfect single crystal is rarely available. Crystalline materials have real crystals. They are of finite dimensions. They have broken bonds at the boundaries where bonding forces …
Structures of solids can be determined by various techniques. Out of these techniques, X-rays and microscopic studies have helped immensely in studying crystallography of metals. Therefore these two techniques are very popular. Hence X-rays will be discussed in this article and microscopy is discussed in another one. X-RAYS X-rays have substantially contributed to reveal the …
Miller is the name of a material scientist. Indices is plural of index. Miller indices are the styles to designate the planes and directions in the unit cells and crystals. Such designations become essential for investigations of various properties in different elements. In the most general way, Miller indices are expressed by (hkl) and no …
Solids, on the basis of their structures, may be classified as: Inorganic solids: (a) Metallic solids (b) Ionic solids (c) Covalent solids Organic (or molecular) solids Complex structure solids Examples of such solids are as under: Metallic solids: Na, Cu, Zn; compounds such as borides, hydrides, nitrides, carbides etc. formed by transition elements. Ionic solids: …
1. Unit cell and Crystal A unit cell is defined as the basic structural part in the composition of materials. It is analogous to a brick used in the building construction. When many unit cells repeat in a three-dimensional space, a crystal is obtained. The structure of a crystal is same as that of a …
The study of geometry and structure of solids is a science known as crystallography. X-rays and microscopes have substantially contributed to this area. The atoms and molecules are held together by chemical bonds in the solids. The orientation, periodicity, and symmetries of atoms and molecules vary widely. The arrangement of atoms may be regular as …
The biogas is produced by digestion, hydrolysis and hydro-gasification. The composition of biogas is as follows: The presence of CO2, in biogas reduces its octane rating. The octane rating of biogas is 110 with CO2. In case the CO2 is removed from the biogas (CH4) its octane rating increases to about 130 as against the …
The biogas plants are built in different sizes and shapes depending on the process carried out. These plants are mainly classified as: Continuous or batch type, Dome and drum type. Continuous or Batch Type Biogas Plants In the continuous type of biogas plant the biomass is fed regularly to the digester and it delivers the …
Biomass is an organic matter produced by plants, both grown on land (terristial biomass) and grown on water (aquatic biomass) and their derivatives and animal manure. The energy obtained from biomass is called the biomass energy. Biomass can be considered a form of solar energy as it is used indirectly to grow these plants …